Indus River System and Indus Waters Treaty: A Pillar of Hydrological Diplomacy

Why in the NEWS?

• After the terrorist attack in Pahalgam, India accused Pakistan of sponsoring terrorism and announced review and suspension of the Indus Water Treaty.

Introduction

• The Indus Waters Treaty (IWT), signed on September 19, 1960, is one of the most significant and successful examples of international water-sharing agreements. 
• It was brokered by the World Bank and governs the distribution of waters of the Indus River System between India and Pakistan. 
• Despite the political tensions and wars between these two countries, the treaty has remained largely intact, highlighting the resilience of cooperative agreements even under challenging circumstances. 
• This treaty is an important case study for international diplomacy and water resource management.

Historical Background

• The origins of the Indus Waters Treaty trace back to the partition of India in 1947, which divided the Indus Basin between the newly formed countries of India and Pakistan. 
• The river system, which had supported the agricultural economies of both nations, was split, but the crucial issue arose when it came to water sharing. 
• Pakistan’s agricultural system was heavily dependent on the waters of the Indus River and its tributaries, while the headwaters of these rivers were in India.

Initial Conflict

• After partition, India, in an attempt to exert political leverage, halted water supplies to Pakistan in 1948, leading to heightened tensions. 
• This resulted in Pakistan appealing for an international resolution. The World Bank intervened, and negotiations commenced.

The Role of the World Bank 

• The World Bank played a crucial role in mediating between the two nations. 
• After several rounds of talks, the treaty was finalized in 1960, with Jawaharlal Nehru (India’s Prime Minister) and Ayub Khan (Pakistan’s President) signing the treaty in Karachi.

Main Provisions of the Treaty

• The Indus Waters Treaty divided the waters of the Indus River System into two broad categories based on their geographical location and usage rights:

Division of Rivers

• Eastern Rivers (India’s Rights): The treaty allocated the waters of the Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej rivers to India. India was given full rights to the water of these rivers.
• Western Rivers (Pakistan’s Rights): The Indus, Jhelum, and Chenab rivers were assigned to Pakistan. These rivers constitute the primary source of water for Pakistan’s agriculture.

India’s Limited Rights on Western Rivers

• While Pakistan was granted the exclusive right to use the waters of the western rivers, India was permitted to utilize these waters for non-consumptive uses, such as hydropower generation, irrigation for specific areas, and domestic and industrial uses.
• India also gained limited rights to build infrastructure (dams and canals) on the western rivers, provided they adhered to the specifications set in the treaty to prevent interference with Pakistan’s water supply.

Financial Compensation:

• India agreed to contribute £62 million (approximately $80 million at the time) to Pakistan as compensation to help it build alternative infrastructure, such as dams and canals, to make up for the loss of access to the eastern rivers.

Establishment of Permanent Indus Commission:

• The treaty created a Permanent Indus Commission consisting of one commissioner from each country. 
• This commission is tasked with facilitating regular dialogue, exchanging data on water flow, and resolving disputes.
• The commission is also required to meet annually to discuss matters related to the implementation of the treaty.

Dispute Resolution Mechanism:

• The treaty laid down a clear dispute resolution procedure in case of conflicts:
  • Step 1: The Permanent Indus Commission would first attempt to resolve disputes through dialogue and negotiation.
  • Step 2: In case of technical disagreements, a Neutral Expert would be appointed.
  • Step 3: If the issue could not be resolved at the expert level, the dispute would be referred to a Court of Arbitration.

India’s Water Utilization under the Treaty

• India, while being allocated the waters of the eastern rivers, has sometimes faced challenges in fully utilizing its share due to infrastructure limitations. 
• Despite this, India has embarked on several hydroelectric projects on the western rivers, which have sometimes led to tensions with Pakistan.

Hydroelectric Projects:

• India has constructed several hydropower projects on the western rivers, such as:
  • Baglihar Dam (Chenab River) – which was resolved through the intervention of a neutral expert.
  • Kishanganga Hydroelectric Project (Jhelum tributary) – which went to international arbitration.
  • Ratle Hydroelectric Project – which Pakistan has objected to.
• India asserts that all its projects comply with the terms and conditions of the Indus Waters Treaty, and its actions are within its rights under the treaty framework.

Eastern Rivers:

• India, although entitled to use the waters of the eastern rivers fully, has allowed some water to flow into Pakistan from the Ravi and Sutlej rivers due to limitations in its irrigation infrastructure. 
• However, India is working on projects like the Shahpurkandi Dam and Ujh Multipurpose Project to optimize its share of these rivers.

Pakistan’s Concerns

• Pakistan’s agricultural economy is highly dependent on the waters of the western rivers, and it has repeatedly expressed concerns regarding India’s control over these rivers. 
• Pakistan fears that India could manipulate the water flow for strategic purposes, especially in times of tension or conflict.

Storage and Flow Regulations:

• Pakistan has raised concerns about India’s large-scale water storage projects, arguing that they could disrupt the flow of water downstream.
• Pakistan has also objected to the silt removal techniques used by India, claiming that these could affect the efficiency of dams and irrigation canals in Pakistan.

Diplomatic and Legal Challenges:

• Pakistan has occasionally sought arbitration or the intervention of a neutral expert to address these concerns, and has argued that India’s actions sometimes violate the minimum flow requirements specified in the treaty.

Recent Developments and Tensions

• The Indus Waters Treaty has faced challenges in recent years, especially after 2016, when tensions between India and Pakistan escalated due to cross-border terrorism. 
• In April 2025, following the Pahalgam terrorist attack, India announced that it would suspend the treaty, citing Pakistan’s alleged support for terrorism.
• India has also indicated its intention to review and potentially withdraw from the treaty, invoking the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (Article 62), which allows a country to terminate or suspend a treaty in the event of a fundamental change in circumstances.
• Moreover, India has halted the sharing of hydrological data with Pakistan, a practice that had been a cornerstone of the treaty. This shift in policy could lead to India accelerating its hydropower projects on the eastern rivers and possibly reducing water flows into Pakistan.

Significance of the Treaty

• The Indus Waters Treaty is widely regarded as one of the most successful international agreements. 
• It stands as a testament to the power of diplomacy and cooperation, even in the face of intense political and military tensions. 
• The treaty provides:
  • Diplomatic Resilience: It has survived wars (1965, 1971, and Kargil 1999) and ongoing political strife.
  • Hydrological Stability: The treaty provides a framework for managing water resources in a region that is facing increasing water stress due to growing populations and climate change.
  • Model for International Cooperation: The IWT has become a reference point for other transboundary water disputes and is often cited as a model for conflict resolution.

Challenges and Criticisms

• Technological Obsolescence: The treaty was signed in 1960 and does not address modern challenges such as climate change, glacier melt, and increased water consumption.
• Environmental Neglect: The treaty does not mention issues like environmental flow or sustainability, which are crucial given the ecological sensitivity of the region.
• Asymmetry: Critics argue that the treaty disproportionately benefits Pakistan, which controls most of the water resources (approximately 80%), while India has limited access to the western rivers.

Indus River System

• The Indus River System is one of the most crucial and geographically expansive transboundary river systems in South Asia, flowing through China, India, and Pakistan. 

Origin and Course of the Indus River

• The Indus River originates from the Tibetan Plateau, near Lake Mansarovar. 
• It enters India through the Ladakh region, flowing between the Ladakh and Karakoram ranges, before passing through Pakistan-occupied Kashmir (PoK) and into Pakistan, where it eventually drains into the Arabian Sea near Karachi. 
• A notable feature of the Indus is the tidal bore phenomenon, where sea tides push water upriver, which is rare among global rivers.

Major Tributaries of the Indus

• Left-Bank Tributaries (Eastern and Western Rivers):
  • Jhelum: Originates in Verinag (Kashmir), joins Indus in Pakistan.
  • Chenab: Rises in Himachal Pradesh (Bara-Lacha Pass), formed by the Chandra and Bhaga rivers.
  • Ravi: Originates from Rohtang Pass, flows through Punjab.
  • Beas: Originates in Solang Valley, meets Sutlej at Harike.
  • Sutlej: Originates from Rakshastal (Tibet), enters India via Shipki La.
• Right-Bank Tributaries:
  • Shyok: Originates from the Rimo Glacier (Ladakh), joins Indus near Skardu (PoK).
  • Other rivers: Gilgit, Hunza, Zanskar, and Kabul.